GEOLOGICAL ENGINEERING
Geology is a field of Earth Sciences that studies everything on planet Earth and its contents were ever there. Is a group of science which deals with the properties [physical and mechanical] and the materials that make up the earth [the atmosphere, hydrosphere, lithosphere, biosphere], structure [toktonika, fault / stocky], the processes that work [endogenous and exogeni] , its place in the Universe [stratigraphic / law-2] as well as the history of its development since the earth was born in the universe until now [geologic time scale relative / absolute]. Geology can be classified as a complex science; Because of the breadth of the areas covered, the Geological typically divided into 2 (two) groups, namely Dynamic Geology and Physical Geology.
I. Definition of Geology
A.Geologi Physical or Physical Geology, is a study to learn about the physical properties of the earth, as [the atmosphere], [lithosphere], [hidrosfir], [konvoegen and divergent], [Biosphere].
Dynamic B.Geologi is part of the Earth Sciences that studies the properties of the dynamics of the earth. The changes in the earth caused by the forces induced by the energy that comes from the earth, such as magma activity that produces vulkanisma, lithosphere motions due to convection currents, earthquakes and movements basin formation and deposition of the mountains.
Plate tectonics [separation continent]
II.Branch of Earth Sciences
Coverage of the science of geology is very broad as the definition, which is studying the whole earth. So as to facilitate the study of the earth, the science of geology can be split into several branches of science, each of which can be studied individually. The branches of the geological sciences is increasing along with advances in science and technology.
Petrology, the science that studies the rocks forming the earth's crust, which covers about how the occurrence, composition, classification of rocks and the relationship with the processes and geological history. Rock is defined as all materials that make up the earth's crust and is an aggregated (collection) of minerals that have been crystallize.
Example cycle seklus rock formation
Excluding the rock is loose soil and other materials that are the result of chemical or mechanical weathering and erosion processes rocks. As aggregated rock-forming minerals in the earth's crust genesis can be grouped into three rock types, namely:
I.Batuan Frozen (Igneous Rock), is a rock that occurs dai freezing liquid and incandescent silica solution, which we know as the magma. Because of the lack of agreement of experts classify igneous petrology resulted in partial classification is made on the basis of different. This difference was highly influential in the use of classification in various jobs and according to the usefulness of each. If we can use the appropriate classification, then we will get a satisfactory result.
Classification of igneous rocks can be based on three main benchmark based on genetic rocks, based on chemical compounds terkadung, and based on the composition of mineraloginya.
a. Based on Genetic: igneous rock composed of minerals and crystals sometimes contain glass, based on where it happened (genesis) igneous rocks are divided into 3 groups:
1. Rocks frozen in (pluktonik), formed deep beneath the earth's surface. The cooling process is so slow that consists entirely of rock crystals (structure holohialin). example: Granite, Granodiorite, and Gabro.
2. Igneous rock excavation (hypabisal), formed in crevices or volcanic pipes. Relatively rapid cooling process that consists of rock crystals are not perfect and mingled with a mass base to form porphyritic structure. The rock samples dalah Granite Porphyry and Diorite Porphyry.
3. Outside igneous rocks (effusive), formed near the surface of the earth. The cooling process is very fast so do not have time to form crystals. This rock is called amorphous structure. Obsidian example, rhyolites and pumice.
b. Based on the chemical compounds: Based on the chemical composition of igneous rocks can be divided into:
1. Ultrabasic igneous rocks have a silica content of less than 45%. For example Dunit and peridotite.
2. Alkaline igneous rocks have silica contents between 45% - 52%. For example Gabro, Basalt.
3. Intermediate igneous rocks have silica contents between 52% -66%. Andesite and syenit example.
4. The acid igneous rocks have a silica content of more than 66%. Granite example, rhyolites. In terms of color, the more alkaline rocks whose composition will be darker than acid composition.
c. Based on the mineralogical composition: Classification based on mineralogy and texture will be mencrminkan battuan formation history on the basis of the chemical. Igneous textures describe circumstances that affect the formation of the rocks themselves. Like the members of granular texture: same min.serba, texture: two generations of mineral formation, texture afanitik: rapid freezing.
Factors Look For In A Frozen rock description is: Color Stone, Stone Structure, Texture rocks, grain shape, Mineral Composition, Properties of Rocks
II.Batuan sediments (sedimentary rock), is the deposition of material formed from the weathering and erosion of an existing rock material first, and then transported by gravity by the media water, wind or ice and deposited elsewhere both onshore section of the earth's surface and sea.
a. Clastic sedimentary rocks: The formation of precipitation or planning denritus rock back home. Origin of rocks can be igneous, sedimentary and metamorphic rocks. In the formation of the clastic sedimentary rocks undergo changes that took place diagnesa ie at low temperatures in a sediment during and after litifikasi, experienced transportation and then sedimented in the sedimentation environment.
Formation of Sedimentary Rocks 1.Proses
Sedimentary rocks are formed from rocks that have been there before by the forces of weathering that is, the forces of water, erosion-erosion angina, as well as the process litifikasi, diagnesis, and transportation, it is sedimented rocks in places that are relatively low-lying , for example: in the sea, ocean, or lakes. At first sedimentary rocks are soft, but because the process of diagenesis so soft rocks was going to be hard.
2.Transportasi and Deposition: fluid particles [greater water transport with water], particles of sediment gravity flow [transportation gravity], Litifikasi [compact], the diagnesis [physical processes, chemistry, and biology], Metasomatisme [change of sedimentary minerals by various authigenic minerals], recrystallization [back of a mineral efflorescence of a chemical solution], solution (solution)
b. Sedimentary rocks Non-clastic
Sedimentary rocks are formed from the chemical reaction or it could be from the activities of organisms. Reasi chemical in question is the direct crystallization or organic reactions (Pettjohn, 1975).
Sediment classification based Koesoemadinata (1981):
Example cycle seklus rock formation
Excluding the rock is loose soil and other materials that are the result of chemical or mechanical weathering and erosion processes rocks. As aggregated rock-forming minerals in the earth's crust genesis can be grouped into three rock types, namely:
I.Batuan Frozen (Igneous Rock), is a rock that occurs dai freezing liquid and incandescent silica solution, which we know as the magma. Because of the lack of agreement of experts classify igneous petrology resulted in partial classification is made on the basis of different. This difference was highly influential in the use of classification in various jobs and according to the usefulness of each. If we can use the appropriate classification, then we will get a satisfactory result.
Classification of igneous rocks can be based on three main benchmark based on genetic rocks, based on chemical compounds terkadung, and based on the composition of mineraloginya.
a. Based on Genetic: igneous rock composed of minerals and crystals sometimes contain glass, based on where it happened (genesis) igneous rocks are divided into 3 groups:
1. Rocks frozen in (pluktonik), formed deep beneath the earth's surface. The cooling process is so slow that consists entirely of rock crystals (structure holohialin). example: Granite, Granodiorite, and Gabro.
b. Based on the chemical compounds: Based on the chemical composition of igneous rocks can be divided into:
1. Ultrabasic igneous rocks have a silica content of less than 45%. For example Dunit and peridotite.
c. Based on the mineralogical composition: Classification based on mineralogy and texture will be mencrminkan battuan formation history on the basis of the chemical. Igneous textures describe circumstances that affect the formation of the rocks themselves. Like the members of granular texture: same min.serba, texture: two generations of mineral formation, texture afanitik: rapid freezing.
Factors Look For In A Frozen rock description is: Color Stone, Stone Structure, Texture rocks, grain shape, Mineral Composition, Properties of Rocks
II.Batuan sediments (sedimentary rock), is the deposition of material formed from the weathering and erosion of an existing rock material first, and then transported by gravity by the media water, wind or ice and deposited elsewhere both onshore section of the earth's surface and sea.
a. Clastic sedimentary rocks: The formation of precipitation or planning denritus rock back home. Origin of rocks can be igneous, sedimentary and metamorphic rocks. In the formation of the clastic sedimentary rocks undergo changes that took place diagnesa ie at low temperatures in a sediment during and after litifikasi, experienced transportation and then sedimented in the sedimentation environment.
Formation of Sedimentary Rocks 1.Proses
Sedimentary rocks are formed from rocks that have been there before by the forces of weathering that is, the forces of water, erosion-erosion angina, as well as the process litifikasi, diagnesis, and transportation, it is sedimented rocks in places that are relatively low-lying , for example: in the sea, ocean, or lakes. At first sedimentary rocks are soft, but because the process of diagenesis so soft rocks was going to be hard.
2.Transportasi and Deposition: fluid particles [greater water transport with water], particles of sediment gravity flow [transportation gravity], Litifikasi [compact], the diagnesis [physical processes, chemistry, and biology], Metasomatisme [change of sedimentary minerals by various authigenic minerals], recrystallization [back of a mineral efflorescence of a chemical solution], solution (solution)
b. Sedimentary rocks Non-clastic
Sedimentary rocks are formed from the chemical reaction or it could be from the activities of organisms. Reasi chemical in question is the direct crystallization or organic reactions (Pettjohn, 1975).
Sediment classification based Koesoemadinata (1981):
According R.P. Koesoemadinata, 1981 sedimentary rocks can be divided into six groups, namely:
Coarse Detritus Group: precipitated by a mechanical process, Detritus Fine Group: This group was deposited in shallow marine environments to the deep sea, Carbonate Group: formed from a collection of shells of mollusks, algae and foraminifera, Type Silica: the combination of organic and chemical pross, Group evaporates : this process should be no water has a fairly concentrated chemical solution, Coal Group: formed from organic elements
Factors Look For In A Frozen rock description is: Color Stone, Stone Structure [no / no adanta stout], Texture Rocks [clastic or non-clastic], grain shape [rate of grain roundness is affected by grain composition, grain size, type of transport processes and transport distance (Boggs, 1987], Mineral Composition, - Sorting (Sorting)
III. Metamorphic rocks (Metamorphic Rock), is a rock that comes from a source rock that changes the texture and mineral composition of the solid phase as a result of changes in physical conditions (pressure, temperature or pressure and temperature).
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Metamorphic rocks a.Pembentukan
Igneous and sedimentary rocks formed due to the interaction of process chemistry, physics, biology and the conditions on the earth and on its surface. Earth is a dynamic system, so that at the time of its formation, the rocks may have a new state of the conditions that can lead to extensive changes in the texture and mineraloginya. These changes occur at pressures and temperatures above and below the melting diagenesis, it will show the process of metamorphism.
Figure: shows the origin of the rocks undergo metamorphism low levels - medium and high levels (O'Dunn and Sill, 1986).
Figure 3.11 shows the location of the cross section of metamorphic rocks (Gillen, 1982).
Metamorphic rocks b.Pengenalan
The introduction of metamorphic rocks can be done through a clear appearance-appearance on the outcrops of metamorphic rock is the result of pressures unequal. The rocks may undergo plastic flow, fracturing and granulation or recrystallization. Some textures and structures in metamorphic rocks may be derived from pre-metamorphic rocks (such as cross-bedding), but most of it is removed during metamorphism. The application of pressure are not the same, especially if it is accompanied by the formation of new minerals, often leads to the appearance of the juxtaposition of texture and structure. The introduction of metamorphic rocks is not much different from other rock types which are based on color, texture, structure and composition.
Figure 3.12 Various structures on migmatit with leukosom (light color) (Compton, 1985).
Metamorphic rocks 1.Struktur: In general structure found in metamorphic rocks are divided into two major groups, namely foliasi structural and non-structural foliasi. Foliasi structure shown by the juxtaposition of constituent minerals of metamorphic rocks, being non foliasi structure shows no alignment constituent minerals of metamorphic rocks.
Metamorphic rocks 2.Tekstur: texture that develops during the process of metamorphism is typically penamaanya follow the words that have the suffix-BLASTIK. For example, metamorphic rock composing uniformly sized crystals called dengangranoblastik. In general, one or more different minerals present is greater than the average; larger crystals are called porphiroblast. Palimpset Texture: The texture of metamorphic rocks are characterized by the texture of the rest of the original rock can still be observed.
Metamorphic rocks 3.Komposisi: Growth of new minerals or recrystallization of existing minerals as a result of changes in pressure and temperature resulted in the formation of crystals or other good, moderate or poor development of the side face; This crystal is called idioblastik, hypidioblastik, or xenoblastik. In general, metamorphic rock composed by certain minerals (Table 3.13), but specifically the mineral constituent of metamorphic rocks are classified into two: (1) mineral stress and (2) the anti-stress mineral. Stress mineral is a mineral that is stable under stress conditions, can form a flat / tabular, prismatic and grow perpendicular to the direction of the force / stress include: mica, tremolit-actinolite, hornblende, serpentine, silimanit, kianit, seolit, glaukopan, chlorite, epidote, staurolit and antolit. Moderate anti-stress mineral is a mineral that is formed under pressure, usually in the form equidimensional, include: quartz, feldspar, garnet, calcite and cordierite.
Figure 3.13 The texture of metamorphic rocks (Compton, 1985).
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